Childhood Bilingualism

Childhood Bilingualism

Introduction

Bilingualism is a term used in reference to an individual's ability to speak two languages.  However, this is a rather broad definition and is hence characteritised by a lot of difficulties in terms of operationalisation. For this reason, researchers have come up with more specific definitions.  Teipelke (2009) has defined bilingualism as 'the ability to speak two languages' (p. 2), whereas Bloomfield defines a bilingual individual as a person characterised by "full competence in two languages", McNamara gives a different definition of a bilingual person namely, someone "competent in a language other than the mother tongue in at least one of the following linguistic domains: comprehension, speaking, reading, writing.” (cited by New & Cochran p. 1050).

Types of Bilingualism

Whereas there are multiple forms of childhood bilingualism, the most popular ones are simultaneous bilingualism and consecutive bilingualism. Simultaneous bilingualism is a type of bilingualism in which a child gains competence in two languages from infancy, through exposure (Ramirez 1985). On the other hand, sequential or consecutive bilingualism is one in which the child learns the first language and becomes competent in it, before being exposed to the second language which they also become competent (Ramirez 1985). Sequential bilingualism could start at an early age, such as the moment the child joins the elementary school, or it might happen at a later age, such as at the intermediate school level when pupils in Canada whose native language is English start learning French (Ramirez 1985).

Bilingualism and cultural identity

One of the main characteristics of bilingualism is cultural identity. Ramírez-Esparza and García-Sierra (2014) talks of a link between bilingualism and multiculturalism. Many simultaneous bilinguals have been shown to competently learn two languages and still manage to learn the cultures linked to such languages. There is the possibility that the two cultures in question could be internalised, thereby forming part of the learner’s identity. A person exposed to two cultures proceeds to internalise these cultures as bicultural. Nonetheless, it does not always follow that bilingual will end up internalising the two cultures owing to the fact that one of the cultures could be dominant over the other (Schroeder, Lam & Marian 2015).

Linguistic confusion

            The fact about code-mixing can result in linguistic confusion among bilingual children is somewhat controversial (Genesse & Nicoladis 2006). Among adults, code-switching is viewed as a vital language tool that points towards metalinguistic awareness. However, among bilingual children, code-switching is regarded as an argument whose intention is to advance the unitary language hypothesis. Nonetheless, these assumptions have come under critics from modern language researchers who have endeavoured to provide evidence that discredits the unitary language hypothesis. For instance, bilingual children isolate and differentiate at an early stage of language development, and while at age 2, bilingual children are able to differentiate between the two languages (Letts et al. 2013). The children demonstrate code-switching as a conscious move thereby pointing towards the development of socio-linguistic and linguistic awareness (Asbjørnsen 2013).

Language and socioeconomic status

A number of studies (for example Letts et al 2013 point towards an association between the family's socioeconomic status and a child's language acquisition ability. In this case, children from high socio-economic status families have been reported to perform better in language acquisition, in comparison with their counterparts from low-economic status families. According to Sirin (2005), children brought up in families where parents are more educated and hence have a higher earning potential, tend to obtain higher scores when exposed to cognitive tests, in comparison with children who do not have access to such benefits. Children from low socio-economic status families report lower levels of expressive and receptive language skills relative to their affluent counterparts (Calvo & Bialystok 2014).  

Training for early practitioners

Bilingual practitioners possess many attributes and skills capable of supporting children in their early years of language acquisition. Early practitioners need to be trained on how to build confidence in the children which is especially crucial in the silent stage of learning where children may not be seen to learn much but in the real sense, they are. Also, early practitioners need to possess skills on how to enhance the support given to children and their families, such as improving practice and communication skills. It is especially important that early practitioners are trained in cross-cultural communication. This will enable them to respect and support young bilingual learners (Smidt 2016).

Conclusion

            There is a growing need to learn more than one language to facilitate co-existence and social mobility. Two forms of bilingualism predominate: simultaneous bilingualism and sequential bilingualism. Cultural identity is a key component of bilingualism as it is indicative of one’s ability to alternate two different languages, thereby enabling one to partake in cultural expression and practice. This often happens without any linguistic confusion because code-switching happens consciously. Nonetheless, bilingual practitioners need to possess cross-cultural communication skills in order to help children surmount the challenges children might encounter while learning a new language.

References

Asbjørnsen, MF (2013) Bilingualism: The situation in Norway. [Online].

Calvo, A & Bialystok, E (2014),’ Independent Effects of Bilingualism and Socioeconomic Status on Language Ability and Executive Functioning’, Cognition, vol. 130, no. 3, pp. 278-288.

Genesee, F & Nicoladis, E ( 2006). Bilingual acquisition. In E. Hoff & M. Shatz (Eds.), Handbook of language development (pp. 324-342). Oxford: Blackwell

Letts, C, Edwards, S, Sinka, I, Schaefer, B & Gibbons, W (2013),’ The New Reynell Developmental Language Scales: Descriptive account and illustrative case study’, International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, vol. 48, no. 2, pp. 121-143.

New, RS & Cochran, M (2007), Early Childhood Education: The countries   Greenwood Publishing Group 2007 

Ramirez, AG (1985), Bilingualism through Schooling: Cross-Cultural Education for Minority and Majority, New York: SUNY Press.

Ramírez-Esparza, N & García-Sierra, A (2014).  The Bilingual Brain: Language, Culture, and Identity. [Online].

Schroeder, SR, Lam, TQ& Marian, V (2015), Linguistic Predictors of Cultural Identification in Bilinguals, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Sirin, SR (2005),’ Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review of research’, Review of Educational Research, vol.75, pp. 417-453.

Smidt, S (2016), Multilingualism in the Early Years: Extending the Limits of Our World, London: Routledge.